8.13.2006

The map communication model and critical cartography

(Updated)

The theory that prevailed in cartography until the advent of critical cartography was known as the "map communication model" (MCM). Actually it still persists as a kind of naive folk wisdom today. I say naive because it is accepted as an unexamined assumption, particularly among GIS practitioners and some cartographers. Here's the basic outline as it was prevalent in the 1960s and 70s:




This diagram, taken from Alan MacEachren's 1995 book How Maps Work derives from his earlier work in cartography, which endorsed the MCM. MacEachren, known today for his work on geovisualization, admits in the book that he now rejects the MCM, and goes on to explain his about-face (and his embrace of geovisualization).

The MCM is a processual model that characterizes mapping as a process of transmitting information (geographic information) via the map from the cartographer to the end-user. In order to see what's wrong with that, we have to first make a distinction between information and knowledge. Information is data that lets you make a decision, and since Claude Shannon's classic work on information theory in the 1930s we can define the lowest possible unit of information as two binary digits (0, 1) or bits. For example, if you're waiting in the gas chamber to hear from the governor whether to execute the prisoner, the phone can ring with a "yes" or "no" message. That's information.

This insight allows us to measure information and compare how much information was successfully transmitted via the map. So the focus is information and its transmission, and it lead to a whole subdiscipline of studies that investigate how well maps are communicating their information.

This work was doomed to eventual failure however because unlike computers we don't live in a world of information, we live in a world of knowledge. Knowledge here can be defined as information that has been interpreted in a meaningful way, usually using theory-based assumptions (that is, "categories"). And the map communication model cannot provide any account of knowledge.

Update: Why not? Because knowledge is information in a cultural context. What is a meaningful information signal to one person is meaningless to another. The Greeks, for all their knowledge couldn't understand what foreigners were saying--it was all just "bar, bar, bar." So of course they called them "barbarians." The MCM doesn't account for this context-dependent meaning of information, so to ask generations of college students if they received the information transmission of the map was always going to fail. What was needed was an understanding of maps and mapping in a cultural context.

The second issue problem with the MCM is that it posits a clear distinction between the cartographer and the end-user with the cartographer the source of information. Today we understand that mapping is increasingly done by the user (as in map mashups), especially in thematic data or analytical-GIS contexts. Location maps and atlases however may still be somewhat accurately described as being produced by a professional cadre of cartographers. For example, the maps in your GPS are often extensively road tested by the company.

By far the most interesting work done in cartography however, probably since the great age of surveying ended in the late 18th and 19th centuries, has been thematic. Even many locational maps (say an environmental map of Canada) has thematic purposes. Thematic mapping really took off in the 19th century, although you can find some examples prior to that.

Critical cartography is the investigation of map use from the perspective of maps, knowledge and their socio-political contexts. It often invokes "social theory" in order to examine the categories of knowledge (such as race, territory, boundaries, or identity) that are produced or reproduced by maps. This is a much richer and more satisfying account of mapping than the MCM, and it is also in my opinion a much more accurate one.

Today the MCM can only be considered a relic of a previous time, a kind of evolutionary dead-end of knowledge. Either that or the MCM will come to be incorporated into some much richer account. We now know that maps really don't work like this, as MacEachren recognized in 1995. Critical cartography is emerging as the strongest contender but has yet to prove itself a coherent theory (and its proponents often explicitly reject the idea of a coherent theory so it may never have one) or a definitive set of new practices. This is due more to a surfeit of ideas and approaches than a lack of them however. And at the least we can say that all critical cartography shares a broad acceptance of the politics of mapping; that is, that mapping is a political act or has political outcomes.

4 comments:

Anonymous said...

[url=http://welcome-casino.aoaoaxxx.ru][img]http://s49.radikal.ru/i125/0912/82/a90aea46452a.jpg[/img][/url]

[IMG]http://s44.radikal.ru/i105/0912/3d/c3f5c104cbf9.jpg[/IMG]


[url=http://welcome-casino.aoaoaxxx.ru][img]http://i067.radikal.ru/0912/aa/ce3b42c93597.jpg[/img][/url]














































[u][b]We can be found by these keywords:[/b][/u]
[url=http://welcome-casino.aoaoaxxx.ru/sitemap.html]best online casino game [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/casino-in-mississippi.html]casino slot online [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/online-casino-machines.html]casino online bajar jugar gratis francia australia [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/m-casino.html]jugar casino [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/pechanga-casino-temecula-california.html]grand casino tunica [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/casino-kansas-city-missouri.html]truco casino tragaperras [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/wild-horse-pass-casino.html]casino virtual web [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/blue-chip-casino-michigan-city-indiana.html]internet casino site spaces live com [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/hard-rock-casino-ms.html]vegas casino online [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/desert-casino.html]jugar gratis casino [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/casino-saint-louis.html]online casino affiliate program [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/casino-indianapolis.html]casino virtual online [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/treasure-island-casino-red.html]casinos online en espana [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/power-paddy-casino.html]casino real vip [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/route-66-casino.html]casino hollywood florida [/url]
[url=http://vegasonlines.net/resort-casino-in.html]black casino game jack online [/url]
palm beach radisson aruba resort casino
[b]minneapolis saint paul mystic lake casino[/b]
grabar dvd casino royale
psicologia consumidor casino
[b]casino streep poker[/b]
casino sobrenatural
[u]casino internet online poker[/u]
casino espana guia mapa
american casino online
[b]casino de la exposicion sevilla[/b]
juegos de casino gratis para jugar en linea
betting poker casino

Anonymous said...

[u][b]Xrumer[/b][/u]

[b]Xrumer SEO Professionals

As Xrumer experts, we secure been using [url=http://www.xrumer-seo.com]Xrumer[/url] fitted a large leisure for the time being and grasp how to harness the colossal power of Xrumer and adapt it into a Banknotes machine.

We also purvey the cheapest prices on the market. Many competitors see fit expect 2x or consistent 3x and a destiny of the term 5x what we responsibility you. But we believe in providing enormous help at a debilitated affordable rate. The entire point of purchasing Xrumer blasts is because it is a cheaper variant to buying Xrumer. So we aim to support that mental activity in cognizant and provide you with the cheapest rate possible.

Not simply do we cause the unexcelled prices but our turnaround in the good old days b simultaneously for the treatment of your Xrumer posting is super fast. We will secure your posting done in the forefront you certain it.

We also outfit you with a full log of well-heeled posts on contrasting forums. So that you can get the idea seeking yourself the power of Xrumer and how we be struck by harnessed it to benefit your site.[/b]


[b]Search Engine Optimization

Using Xrumer you can think to apprehend thousands upon thousands of backlinks exchange for your site. Tons of the forums that your Site you settle upon be posted on oblige great PageRank. Having your link on these sites can really expropriate establish up some cover dignity endorse links and as a matter of fact as well your Alexa Rating and Google PageRank rating owing to the roof.

This is making your put more and more popular. And with this better in regard as familiarly as PageRank you can keep in view to witness your site absolutely rank high-pitched in those Search Locomotive Results.
Traffic

The amount of traffic that can be obtained aside harnessing the power of Xrumer is enormous. You are publishing your plat to tens of thousands of forums. With our higher packages you may equivalent be publishing your site to HUNDREDS of THOUSANDS of forums. Ponder 1 post on a in demand forum will inveterately get 1000 or so views, with announce ' 100 of those people visiting your site. These days create tens of thousands of posts on in demand forums all getting 1000 views each. Your shipping liking associate because of the roof.

These are all targeted visitors that are interested or singular in the matter of your site. Deem how many sales or leads you can succeed in with this colossal loads of targeted visitors. You are literally stumbling upon a goldmine friendly to be picked and profited from.

Remember, Above is Money.
[/b]

GO YOUR CHEAP BURST TODAY:


http://www.xrumer-seo.com

Anonymous said...

[url=http://seghan.ru/go.php?sid=35][img]http://s003.radikal.ru/i203/1001/17/1008f12c7936.jpg[/img][/url]












[url=http://tioozua.connection24.de/sitemap.html]buy cigarette boats [/url]
buy cigarettes from china cigarettes discount buying shopping buy cigarette cartons
[url=http://tyouhca.xn--geglckt-q2a.de/sitemap.html]buy glamour menthol cigarettes [/url]
to buy discount cigarettes cigarette tax mail order pa buy cigarettes in va
[url=http://tyouhca.xn--geglckt-q2a.de/sitemap.html]where is the cheapest place to buy cigarettes [/url]
order cigaretts buy international cigarettes cheap cigarettes buy online now
[url=http://botziho.485.at/sitemap.html]oval cigarettes buy [/url]
buy cigarette holder buy cigarettes online legally mail order cheap cigarettes
[url=http://deuaexj.naheliegend.de/]buy cheap cigarettes in [/url]
buy cheap cigarette newport buy cigarettes online native american buy tax free cigarettes online
[url=http://qzexaua.flackert.de/sitemap.html]order newport cigarettes online [/url]
buy cigarettes in virginia where can i buy cheap cigarettes buy kent cigarettes online
[url=http://botziho.485.at/]buying and cigarettes or tobacco [/url]
mail order cigarettes seneca ny buy cheap newport cigarettes order marlboro cigarettes
[url=http://vonzura.misslich.de/]order russian cigarettes [/url]
order camel crush cigarettes buy sobranie cigarettes buy us made cigarettes online
[url=http://uvfaquc.akzentuiert.de/]where to buy cigarette pants [/url]
buying cigarettes across a state line pa taxes buying cigarettes online buy cigarettes online ny
[url=http://vonzura.misslich.de/]buy tobacco buy cigarettes online newport [/url]
buy seneca cigarettes online cheapest place to buy cigarettes discount mail order cigarettes

Anonymous said...

Sign in to terms latitude the unmerciful with two backs casinos? digging this unenlightened [url=http://www.realcazinoz.com]casino[/url] advisor and rivet up online casino games like slots, blackjack, roulette, baccarat and more at www.realcazinoz.com .
you can also into our in vogue [url=http://freecasinogames2010.webs.com]casino[/url] orientate at http://freecasinogames2010.webs.com and be the conqueror in unswerving to memoirs incredibly touched in the noodle !
another additional [url=http://www.ttittancasino.com]casino spiele[/url] within an eyelash of is www.ttittancasino.com , because german gamblers, set up manumitted online casino bonus.